Immunological and Inflammatory Biomarkers in the Prognosis, Prevention, and Treatment of Ischemic Stroke: A Review of a Decade of Advancement.

Ischemic stroke triggers a dynamic immune response that influences both acute damage and long-term recovery. This review synthesizes a decade of evidence on immunological and inflammatory biomarkers in ischemic stroke, emphasizing their prognostic and therapeutic significance. Following ischemic insult, levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and chemokines like interleukin-8 (IL-8) rapidly rise, promoting blood-brain barrier disruption, leukocyte infiltration, and neuronal death. Conversely, anti-inflammatory mediators such as interleukin-10 (IL-10) and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) facilitate repair, neurogenesis, and immune regulation in later phases. The balance between these pathways determines outcomes and is reflected in circulating biomarkers. Composite hematological indices including the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), and systemic immune-inflammation index (SII) offer accessible and cost-effective prognostic tools. Several biomarkers correlate with infarct size, neurological deterioration, and mortality, and may predict complications like hemorrhagic transformation or infection. Therapeutic strategies targeting cytokines, especially IL-1 and IL-6, have shown promise in modulating inflammation and improving outcomes. Future directions include personalized immune profiling, real-time cytokine monitoring, and combining immunotherapy with neurorestorative approaches. By integrating immune biomarkers into stroke care, clinicians may enhance risk stratification, optimize treatment timing, and identify candidates for novel interventions. This review underscores inflammation's dual role and evolving therapeutic and prognostic relevance in ischemic stroke.