Early and long-term effects of maternal protein restriction on offspring organs and systems: insights from the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD).

Maternal malnutrition affects millions of people worldwide in two main ways: through food insecurity and hunger, as well as through diets high in ultra-processed, low-nutrient foods. These effects are often linked to deficiencies in specific macronutrients and micronutrients, which can lead to organ-specific consequences in the biological development of the child-a context explored within the framework of the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD). Given the extensive effects of maternal protein restriction (MPR) on offspring development, this review focuses specifically on low-protein diets and their impact on various organs and systems. It compiles both experimental and epidemiological data across different developmental stages. Poor maternal nutrition can impair embryonic and fetal development, creating a stressful microenvironment for both mother and child from the earliest stages of life. This stress can leave epigenetic marks that influence health and disease outcomes later in life. Numerous studies have documented the wide-ranging consequences of malnutrition, highlighting its detrimental effects on metabolic, molecular, and phenotypic systems. This narrative review aims to present both the immediate and long-term effects of exposure to MPR throughout the lifespan of the offspring.