Broncholithiasis: current concepts of an ancient disease.

Broncholithiasis, associated most frequently with tuberculosis and histoplasmosis, usually presents with acute onset of cough and hemoptysis. Visible stones are coughed up in fewer cases than was previously believed. The disease may be accompanied by obstructive symptoms, bronchiectasis, and occasional fistula formation into either the esophagus or the aorta. The prognosis of these patients is generally excellent; however, a significant number require surgery because of persistent symptoms or a complication of the disease.