The effects of joint stress on sticklebacks.

The effects on the three-spined stickleback, (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.), of various combinations of stresses due to parasitism by Schistocephalus solidus, dietary restriction, and exposure to cadmium (0.032 mg 1-1) were investigated. Sticklebacks exposed to a combination of all three stressors died first with a median period of survival significantly shorter than that for fish subjected to fewer stressors. Compared with fish on a restricted diet alone, parasitism plus dietary restriction also reduced survival; however, the combination of cadmium exposure and restricted diet did not. A possible explanation for this finding is proposed.