Lower G M
Cancer. 1982 Mar 1;49(5):1056-66. doi: 10.1002/1097-0142(19820301)49:5<1056::aid-cncr2820490535>3.0.co;2-i.
A significant portion of the incidence of human urinary bladder cancer can be attributed to occupational and cultural (tobacco smoking) situations associated with exposures to various arylamines, many of which represent established human carcinogens. A brief historical overview of research in bladder cancer causality indicates that the identification of causal agents and causal mechanism has been approached and rests upon information gathered at the organismal (geographical/historical), cellular, and molecular levels of biologic organization. This viewpoint speaks of a natural evolution within the biomedical sciences; a natural evolution from descriptive approaches to mechanistic approaches; and a natural evolution from more or less independent discipline-oriented approaches to hierarchically organized multidisciplinary approaches. Available information relevant to bladder cancer causality can be readily integrated into general conceptual frameworks to yield a hierarchial view of the natural history of urinary bladder cancer, a view consistent with contemporary natural systems and information theory and perhaps relevant also to other chemically induced epithelial cancers. Such frameworks are useful in appreciating the spatial and temporal boundaries and interrelationships in causality and the conceptual interrelationships within the biomedical sciences. Recent approaches in molecular epidemiology and the assessment of relative individual susceptibility to bladder cancer indicate that such frameworks are useful in forming hypotheses.
人类膀胱癌发病率的很大一部分可归因于与接触各种芳基胺相关的职业和文化（吸烟）情况，其中许多芳基胺是已确定的人类致癌物。对膀胱癌病因研究的简要历史回顾表明，病因和病因机制的确定一直基于在生物组织的机体（地理/历史）、细胞和分子水平上收集的信息。这种观点反映了生物医学科学的自然演变；从描述性方法到机制性方法的自然演变；以及从或多或少独立的学科导向方法到层次化组织的多学科方法的自然演变。与膀胱癌病因相关的现有信息可以很容易地整合到一般概念框架中，以产生膀胱癌自然史的层次化观点，这种观点与当代自然系统和信息理论一致，可能也与其他化学诱导的上皮癌相关。这些框架有助于理解病因中的时空界限和相互关系，以及生物医学科学中的概念相互关系。分子流行病学的最新方法和对膀胱癌相对个体易感性的评估表明，这些框架有助于形成假设。
