Modularity in vertebrate brain development and evolution.

Embryonic modularity and functional modularity are two principles of brain organization. Embryonic modules are histogenetic fields that are specified by position-dependent expression of patterning genes. Within each embryonic module, secondary and higher-level pattern formation takes places during development, finally giving rise to brain nuclei and cortical layers. Defined subsets of these structures become connected by fiber tracts to form the information-processing neural circuits, which represent the functional modules of the brain. We review evidence that a group of cell adhesion molecules, the cadherins, provides an adhesive code for both types of modularity, based on a preferentially homotypic binding mechanism. Embryonic modularity is transformed into functional modularity, in part by translating early-generated positional information into an array of adhesive cues, which regulate the binding of functional neural structures distributed across the embryonic modules. Brain modularity may provide a basis for adaptability in evolution.