Gas embolism: pathophysiology and treatment.

Based on a literature search, an overview is presented of the pathophysiology of venous and arterial gas embolism in the experimental and clinical environment, as well as the relevance and aims of diagnostics and treatment of gas embolism. The review starts with a few historical observations and then addresses venous air embolism by discussing pulmonary vascular filtration, entrapment, and the clinical occurrence of venous air emboli. The section on arterial gas embolism deals with the main mechanisms involved, coronary and cerebral air embolism (CAE), and the effects of bubbles on the blood-brain barrier. The diagnosis of CAE uses various techniques including ultrasound, perioperative monitoring, computed tomography, brain magnetic resonance imaging and other modalities. The section on therapy starts by addressing the primary treatment goals and the roles of adequate oxygenation and ventilation. Then the rationale for hyperbaric oxygen as a therapy for CAE based on its physiological mode of action is discussed, as well as some aspects of adjuvant drug therapy. A few animal studies are presented, which emphasize the importance of the timing of therapy, and the outcome of patients with air embolism (including clinical patients, divers and submariners) is described.