Pushing the envelope: extracytoplasmic stress responses in bacterial pathogens.

Despite being nutrient rich, the tissues and fluids of vertebrates are hostile to microorganisms, and most bacteria that attempt to take advantage of this environment are rapidly eliminated by host defences. Pathogens have evolved various means to promote their survival in host tissues, including stress responses that enable bacteria to sense and adapt to adverse conditions. Many different stress responses have been described, some of which are responsive to one or a small number of cues, whereas others are activated by a broad range of insults. The surface layers of pathogenic bacteria directly interface with the host and can bear the brunt of the attack by the host armoury. Several stress systems that respond to perturbations in the microbial cell outside of the cytoplasm have been described and are known collectively as extracytoplasmic or envelope stress responses (ESRs). Here, we review the role of the ESRs in the pathogenesis of Gram-negative bacterial pathogens.