Miniaturisation effects in larvae and adults of Mikado sp. (Coleoptera: Ptiliidae), one of the smallest free-living insects.

We present the first morphological study of larvae and adults of Mikado sp. - one of the smallest known beetles and free-living insects (body length of adult is 390-455microm). Morphological and developmental consequences of miniaturisation in Mikado and insects in general are discussed. We used histological sectioning, scanning electron microscopy, laser confocal microscopy and 3D-computer reconstruction. For the first time we report that according to the morphometric data of Mikado sp., at least some ptiliid beetles have three larval stages. We studied the muscular system of adults and larval stages. It is shown that ptiliid beetles have nearly the complete set of muscles found in larger staphyliniform beetles. Developmental and size dependent changes in the relative volume of different organs are addressed. All organ systems change allometrically in the development of Mikado sp. as well as in comparison with larger representatives of Ptiliidae and closely related groups of beetles, such as Staphylinidae. We conclude that the factors limiting miniaturisation are the size of the neural system, associated with the number and size of neurons, the mass of the skeleton, the egg size (free-living insects), and consequently the volume of the reproductive system.