Clinical assessment of cardiac output.

Cardiac output estimation is an important and much needed measurement for assessing patients in heart failure. In hypertension, it is vital for understanding the haemodynamic basis of the disease and the mode of action of drugs. Measurements of blood pressure and cardiac output provide the only means of estimating peripheral resistance. Of the available methods to determine cardiac output, thermodilution is the most practical, although it has its difficulties and care has to be exercised in its use. When intra-arterial blood pressure measurements are needed, the dye-dilution method is equally valid, and if respiratory techniques are available the Fick principle may also be used. Of the non-invasive methods, none is yet developed to a stage suitable for general clinical use. Doppler velocimetry is the most promising technique, but it requires complex computer analysis and, as yet, can reliably be used only to measure changes in cardiac output in an individual. The technique has been assessed against the electromagnetic flowmeter in man and gives reasonable accuracy and repeatability. Echocardiography and impedance cardiography are not yet satisfactory for clinical use; neither are the radionuclide methods, apart from the 'first pass' method, but this also needs further verification.