School of Education, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
Br J Psychol. 2013 Feb;104(1):39-56. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02097.x. Epub 2012 Jan 23.
Evidence that chess expertise rests on practice alone mostly comes from studies using a correlational retrospective recall paradigm, which confounds amount of study with number of games played and possible innate talent. Researchers also often use latest performance rating and include participants who play and study little. Study 1 partially replicated such studies with improvements such as use of peak rating and a large, skilled sample. Number of internationally-rated games played was the strongest predictor of peak rating. Total study hours was a significant but weaker predictor. Study 2 controlled for sampling confounds by including only very well-practiced players who had played at least 350 internationally-rated games. Total study hours did not predict rating at 350 games. Study 3 found that the subjective phenomenon of reaching a performance ceiling and undertaking specific practice to get beyond it does occur but does not distinguish between stronger and weaker players. Study 4 found that many players play relatively few internationally-rated games mostly because of other commitments, such as work and education. Extensive study may go along with great interest in and persistence at chess but apparently lacks a major causative role in chess performance level.
证据表明，国际象棋专家主要是通过练习来获得的，这主要来自于使用相关回溯回忆范式的研究，该范式将学习量与下棋次数和可能的天赋相混淆。研究人员还经常使用最新的表现评级，并包括那些下棋和学习较少的参与者。研究 1 部分复制了这些研究，改进了使用巅峰评级和大量熟练样本的方法。国际评级比赛的次数是巅峰评级的最强预测因素。总的学习时间是一个重要但较弱的预测因素。研究 2 通过只包括练习时间超过 350 小时且至少下过 350 场国际评级比赛的非常有经验的棋手，控制了抽样混淆。在 350 场比赛中，总的学习时间并不能预测评级。研究 3 发现，达到表现上限并进行特定练习以超越上限的主观现象确实存在，但无法区分强者和弱者。研究 4 发现，许多棋手下的国际评级比赛相对较少，主要是因为其他的承诺，如工作和教育。广泛的学习可能伴随着对国际象棋的浓厚兴趣和坚持不懈，但显然在国际象棋表现水平上没有起到主要的因果作用。
