Cardiovascular autophagy: concepts, controversies, and perspectives.

Despite recent scientific and technological advances, cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Autophagy, an evolutionarily ancient response to cellular stress, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a wide range of heart pathologies. However, the precise role of autophagy in these contexts remains obscure owing to its multifarious actions. Here, we review recently derived insights regarding the role of autophagy in multiple manifestations of cardiac plasticity and disease.