Prospects and problems in studying traumatic flashbacks: reply to Kvavilashvili (2014).

The study of flashbacks is becoming increasingly important, as new proposals for the 11th edition of the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases give them an increasingly prominent role in the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. Amplifying the commentary of Kvavilashvili (2014), I contend that further progress is likely to depend on improved definition, distinguishing them from other forms of involuntary memory, and on more precise measurement. Improved measurement requires systematic testing of questionnaire and interview items as well as the use of experimental designs that contrast flashbacks directly with voluntary memory. Future research can now build on a solid base of theory and empirical findings, but it is always likely to be limited by the fact that it is difficult to bring involuntary memory under complete experimental control.