Autophagy may protect MC3T3-E1 cells from fluoride-induced apoptosis.

Fluoride is an essential trace element for all mammalian species; however, excess fluoride intake is known to be toxic to cells in animals and humans. The toxicity of fluoride is mainly exerted via induction of apoptosis. Autophagy is induced by numerous cytotoxic stimuli; however, it is often unclear whether, under specific conditions, autophagy has a pro‑survival or a pro‑apoptotic role. To answer this critical question, the present study assessed autophagy and apoptosis simultaneously in single cells. It was demonstrated that fluoride was able to inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis and autophagy, whereas autophagy appeared to be protective. Further analysis revealed that MAPK/JNK‑dependent autophagy may be protective in fluoride‑induced apoptosis. It is anticipated that the presented single‑cell approach may be a powerful tool for gaining a quantitative understanding of the complex regulation of autophagy, its effect on cell fate and its association with other cellular pathways.