T cell subpopulations.

The role of allergen-specific CD4+ effector type 2 helper (Th2) cells in the pathogenesis of allergic disorders is an established fact. Th2 cells produce interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13, which induce immunoglobulin E production by B cells, and IL-5 that allows recruitment of eosinophils. Two main mechanisms control the Th2-mediated allergic inflammation: immune deviation (or Th1 redirection) and immune regulation. Regulatory T (Treg) cells exhibit a CD4+ phenotype and include Foxp3-positive thymic and induced Tregs, as well as Foxp3-negative IL-10-producing cells. Both immune deviation and immune regulation evoked by the maternal and newborn microbial environment probably operate in preventing allergen-specific Th2 responses. However, microbe-related protection from allergy seems to mainly depend on epigenetically controlled acetylation of the IFNG promoter of CD4+ T cells. Even Th17 and Th9 cells, as well as invariant NKT cells, have been implicated in the pathogenesis of allergic disorders, but their role is certainly more limited. Recently, innate lymphoid type 2 cells (ILC2) have been found to be able to produce high amounts of IL-5 and IL-13 in response to stimulation with IL-25 and IL-33 produced by non-immune cells. Together with Th2 cells, ILC2 may contribute to the induction and maintenance of allergic inflammation.