Characteristics of pristine volcanic materials: Beneficial and harmful effects and their management for restoration of agroecosystem.

Eruption of Sinabung volcano in Indonesia began again in 2010 after resting for 1200 years. The volcano is daily emitting ash and pyroclastic materials since September 2013 to the present, damaging agroecosystems and costing for management restoration. The objective of the study was to assess properties and impacts of pristine volcanic material depositions on soil properties and to provide management options for restoring the affected agroecosytem. Land satellite imagery was used for field studies to observe the distribution, thickness and properties of ashfall deposition. The pristine ashfall deposits and the underlying soils were sampled for mineralogical, soluble salt, chemical, physical and toxic compound analyses. Results showed that uneven distribution of rainfall at the time of violent eruption caused the areas receiving mud ashfall developed surface encrustation, which was not occur in areas receiving dry ashfall. Ashfall damaged the agroecosytem by burning vegetation, forming surface crusts, and creating soil acidity and toxicity. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) analyses of encrustated layer indicated the presence of gypsum and jarosite minerals. Gypsum likely acted as a cementing agent in the formation of the encrustation layer with extremely low pH (2.9) and extremely high concentrations of Al, Ca and S. Encrustation is responsible for limited water infiltration and root penetration, while the extremely high concentration of Al is responsible for crop toxicity. Mud ashfall and dry ashfall deposits also greatly changed the underlying soil properties by decreasing soil pH and cation exchange capacity and by increasing exchangeable Ca, Al, and S availability. Despite damaging vegetation in the short-term, the volcanic ashfall enriched the soil in the longer term by adding nutrients like Ca, Mg, K, Na, P, Si and S. Suggested management practices to help restore the agroecosystem after volcanic eruptions include: (i) the application of lime to increase soil pH, increase cation exchange capacity and decrease Al and S toxicities, (ii) the selection of crops which are tolerant to low pH and high concentrations of soluble Al and S, (iii) physically disrupting the hard surface crusts that form on some soils (if <2 cm thick) to allow water infiltration and root penetration, (iv) application of N and K fertilizers, and (v) incorporation of dry ashfall into the soil (if <5 cm thick) to exploit the newly deposited nutrients.