Environmental regulation of sex determination in reptiles.

The various patterns of environmental sex determination in squamates, chelonians and crocodilians are described. High temperatures produce males in lizards and crocodiles but females in chelonians. Original experiments on the effects of incubation at 30 degrees C (100% females) or 33 degrees C (100% males) on development in Alligator mississippiensis are described. These include an investigation of the effect of exposing embryos briefly to a different incubation temperature on the sex ratio at hatching, and a study of the effects of 30 degrees C and 33 degrees C on growth and development of alligator embryos and gonads. A 7-day pulse of one temperature on the background of another was insufficient to alter the sex ratio dramatically. Incubation at 33 degrees C increased the rate of growth and development of alligator embryos. In particular, differentiation of the gonad at 33 degrees C was enhanced compared with 30 degrees C. A hypothesis is developed to explain the mechanism of temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) in crocodilians. The processes of primary sex differentiation are considered to involve exposure to a dose of some male-determining factor during a specific quantum of developmental time during early incubation. The gene that encodes for the male-determining factor is considered to have an optimum temperature (33 degrees C). Any change in the temperature affects the expression of this gene and affects the dose or quantum embryos are exposed to. In these cases there is production of females by default. The phylogenetic implications of TSD for crocodilians, and reptiles in particular, are related to the life history of the animal from conception to sexual maturity. Those animals that develop under optimal conditions grow fastest and largest and become male. A general association between the size of an animal and its sex is proposed for several types of vertebrate.