Unravelling the phenology of Ixodes frontalis, a common but understudied tick species in Europe.

Tick-borne diseases have a complex epidemiology that depends on different ecological communities, associating several species of vertebrate hosts, vectors and pathogens. While most studies in Europe are focused on Ixodes ricinus, the common sheep tick, other Ixodes species may also be involved in the transmission or maintenance of different pathogens. In this study, we describe for the first time the activity pattern of I. frontalis, an understudied but widespread tick species associated with several common bird species in Europe. Questing ixodid tick stages (larvae, nymphs and adults) of both I. frontalis and I. ricinus were monitored by the drag sampling method over three years at the same locations in Western France. Differential activities were observed depending on I. frontalis life stages: nymphs and adults were present sporadically on the ground throughout the year, while larvae exhibited a marked peak of activity around October-November with tens or even hundreds of individuals per m, followed by a slow decrease in winter. Larvae were completely absent in summer, which contrasts with the high numbers of I. ricinus larvae at this time of the year. The vegetation and the litter where the two tick species were found also exhibited marked differences, with I. frontalis mostly collected under bamboo bushes.