Comparative genomics and phylogenetic analysis of Bacillus anthracis strains isolated from domestic animals in Japan.

Anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis, is a severe zoonosis with a great impact on both human and animal health. In the present study, we identified the phylogenetic relationships among 16 Japanese strains of B. anthracis, including eight bovine strains, two equine strains, five swine strains, and one former vaccine strain, using in silico canonical single nucleotide polymorphism (canSNP) and core genome SNP analyses. The results of our in silico canSNP analysis suggest that these 16 Japanese strains could be divided into four lineages: i) one equine strain in A.Br.Ames, ii) one equine and six bovine strains in A.Br.001/002, iii) five swine and one bovine strain in A.Br.Aust94, and iv) one bovine and one vaccine strain in A.Br.008/011. A comparison with non-Japanese B. anthracis strains revealed a total of 3787 SNPs identified from the whole genome sequences of the Japanese strains; these SNP data were subjected to a phylogenetic analysis using the maximum parsimony (MP) method. Our core genome SNP analysis was also able to detect differences of a few chromosomal SNPs across clonal strains from the same cases that had different storage and passage histories. Additionally, our whole genome SNP analysis clearly indicated that the Japanese swine anthrax cases of 1982 were caused by at least three independent strains; however, their phylogeny revealed no clear relationship with swine strains from other countries. The bovine strain belonging to the A.Br.008/011 lineage differed from a former Japanese vaccine strain by only 12 SNPs. Together with the phylogenic results and epidemiological circumstances, the diversity of strains reveals that the B. anthracis available in Japan probably resulted from multiple relatively recent import events, rather than reflecting the persistence of a more ancient ecologically established group.