Precision Medicine Goes Microscopic: Engineering the Microbiome to Improve Drug Outcomes.

Despite the recognition, nearly a century ago, that the human microbiome plays a clinically relevant role in drug disposition, mechanistic insights, and translational applications are still limited. Here, we highlight the recent re-emergence of "pharmacomicrobiomics," which seeks to understand how inter-individual variations in the microbiome shape drug efficacy and side effect profiles. Multiple bacterial species, genes, and enzymes have already been implicated in the direct biotransformation of drugs, both from targeted case studies and from systematic computational and experimental analyses. Indirect mechanisms are also at play; for example, microbial interactions with the host immune system can have broad effects on immunomodulatory drugs. Finally, we discuss multiple emerging strategies for the precise manipulation of complex microbial communities to improve treatment outcomes. In the coming years, we anticipate a shift toward a more comprehensive view of precision medicine that encompasses our human and microbial genomes and their combined metabolic activities.