Recent Clinical Advances in Pharmacotherapy for Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia.

Onset of involuntary movement patterns of the face, body and limbs are known as dyskinesia. They mostly appear in association with long-term levodopa (L-dopa) therapy in patients with Parkinson's disease. Consequences include patient distress, caregiver embarrassment and reduced quality of life. A severe intensity of this motor complication may result in troublesome disability; however, patients typically prefer motor behaviour with slight, non-troublesome dyskinesia to 'OFF' states. Pharmacotherapy of dyskinesia is complex. Continuous nigrostriatal postsynaptic dopaminergic receptor stimulation may delay onset of L-dopa-associated dyskinesia, while non-physiological, 'pulsatile' receptor stimulation facilitates appearance of dyskinesia. In the past, there have been many clinical trial failures with compounds that were effective in animal models of dyskinesia. Only the N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist amantadine has shown moderate antidyskinetic effects in small well-designed clinical studies. Amantadine is an old antiviral compound, which moderately improves impaired motor behaviour. Recently, there has been a resurgence of its use due to the US Food and Drug Administration approval of an extended-release (ER) amantadine formulation for treatment of L-dopa-induced dyskinesia. This pharmacokinetic innovation improved dyskinesia and 'OFF' states in pivotal trials, with a once-daily oral application in the evening. Amantadine ER provides higher and more continuous amantadine plasma bioavailability than conventional immediate-release formulations, which require administration up to three times daily.