Microbiota-gut-brain axis and toll-like receptors in Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial disease which involves both the periphery and central nervous system (CNS). It has been recently recognized that gut microbiota interacts with the gut and brain (microbiota-gut-brain axis), contributing to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD. Dysbiosis of gut microbiota can induce increased intestinal permeability and systemic inflammation, which may lead to the development of AD pathologies and cognitive impairment via the neural, immune, endocrine, and metabolic pathways. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in the innate immune system via recognizing microbes-derived pathogens and initiating the inflammatory process. TLRs have also been found in the brain, especially in the microglia, and have been indicated in the development of AD. In this review, we summarized the relationship between microbiota-gut-brain axis and AD, as well as the complex role of TLRs in AD. Intervention of the gut microbiota or modulation of TLRs properly might emerge as promising preventive and therapeutic strategies for AD.