Adrenergic receptors and cardiovascular effects of catecholamines.

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the body's "fight or flight" reaction. The physiological responses to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal medulla are mediated through the action of the endogenous catecholamines norepinephrine (or noradrenaline) and epinephrine (or adrenaline) on adrenergic receptors. Adrenergic receptors belong to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). Adrenoceptors are divided into alpha1, alpha2, beta1, beta2 and beta3 receptors. Norepinephrine stimulates both subtypes of α receptors and β1 receptors. Epinephrine stimulates all subtypes ofα and β adrenoreceptors. α1 adrenergic receptors, coupled to stimulatory Gq proteins, activate the enzyme phospholipase C and are mainly found in the smooth muscle cells of blood vessels and urinary tract, where they induce constriction. α2 receptors are coupled to inhibitory Gi proteins, that inactivate adenylyl cyclase, decreasing cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AMP) production. They are mainly found in the central nervous system, where their activation results in a decreased arterial blood pressure. β1 adrenoreceptors predominate in the heart, activate the Gs-adenylyl cyclase -cAMP-protein kinase A signaling cascade, and induce positive inotropic and chronotropic effects. β2 adrenoreceptors are distributed extensively throughout the body, but are expressed predominantly in bronchial smooth muscle cells. β2 adrenergic receptors activate adenylyl cyclase, dilate blood vessels and bronchioles, relax the muscles of the uterus, bladder and gastrointestinal duct, and also decrease platelet aggregation and glycogenolysis. β3 receptors can couple interchangeably to both stimulating and inhibiting G proteins. They are abundantly expressed in white and brown adipose tissue, and increase fat oxidation, energy expenditure and insulin-mediated glucose uptake. This review details the regulation of cardiac and vascular function by adrenergic receptors.