Motion Extrapolation in Visual Processing: Lessons from 25 Years of Flash-Lag Debate.

Because of the delays inherent in neural transmission, the brain needs time to process incoming visual information. If these delays were not somehow compensated, we would consistently mislocalize moving objects behind their physical positions. Twenty-five years ago, Nijhawan used a perceptual illusion he called the flash-lag effect (FLE) to argue that the brain's visual system solves this computational challenge by extrapolating the position of moving objects (Nijhawan, 1994). Although motion extrapolation had been proposed a decade earlier (e.g., Finke et al., 1986), the proposal that it caused the FLE and functioned to compensate for computational delays was hotly debated in the years that followed, with several alternative interpretations put forth to explain the effect. Here, I argue, 25 years later, that evidence from behavioral, computational, and particularly recent functional neuroimaging studies converges to support the existence of motion extrapolation mechanisms in the visual system, as well as their causal involvement in the FLE. First, findings that were initially argued to challenge the motion extrapolation model of the FLE have since been explained, and those explanations have been tested and corroborated by more recent findings. Second, motion extrapolation explains the spatial shifts observed in several FLE conditions that cannot be explained by alternative (temporal) models of the FLE. Finally, neural mechanisms that actually perform motion extrapolation have been identified at multiple levels of the visual system, in multiple species, and with multiple different methods. I outline key questions that remain, and discuss possible directions for future research.