Toward the Effective Bioengineering of a Pathological Tissue for Cardiovascular Disease Modeling: Old Strategies and New Frontiers for Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapy.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) still represent the primary cause of mortality worldwide. Preclinical modeling by recapitulating human pathophysiology is fundamental to advance the comprehension of these diseases and propose effective strategies for their prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. , and models have been applied to dissect many cardiovascular pathologies. Computational and bioinformatic simulations allow developing algorithmic disease models considering all known variables and severity degrees of disease. studies based on small or large animals have a long tradition and largely contribute to the current treatment and management of CVDs. investigation with two-dimensional cell culture demonstrates its suitability to analyze the behavior of single, diseased cellular types. The introduction of induced pluripotent stem cell technology and the application of bioengineering principles raised the bar toward three-dimensional modeling by enabling the development of pathological tissue equivalents. This review article intends to describe the advantages and disadvantages of past and present modeling approaches applied to provide insights on some of the most relevant congenital and acquired CVDs, such as rhythm disturbances, bicuspid aortic valve, cardiac infections and autoimmunity, cardiovascular fibrosis, atherosclerosis, and calcific aortic valve stenosis.