Plastid genomes and phylogenomics of liverworts (Marchantiophyta): Conserved genome structure but highest relative plastid substitution rate in land plants.

With some 7300 species of small nonvascular spore-producing plants, liverworts represent one of the major lineages of land plants. Although multi-locus molecular phylogenetic studies have elucidated relationships of liverworts at different taxonomic categories, the backbone phylogeny of liverworts is still to be fully resolved, especially for the placement of Ptilidiales and the relationships within Jungermanniales and Marchantiales. Here, we provided phylogenomic inferences of liverworts based on 42 newly sequenced and 24 published liverwort plastid genomes representing all but two orders of liverworts, and characterized the evolution of the plastome in liverworts. The structure of the plastid genome is overall conserved across the phylogeny of liverworts, with only two structural variants detected from simple thalloids, besides 18 out of 43 liverwort genera showing intron variations in their plastomes. Complex thalloid liverworts maintain the most plastid genes, and seem to undergo fewer gene deletions and pseudogenization events than other liverworts. Plastid phylogenetic inferences yielded mostly robustly supported relationships, and consistently resolved Ptilidiales as the sister to Porellales. The relative ratio of silent substitutions across the three genetic compartments (i.e., 1:15:10, for mitochondrial:plastid:nuclear) suggests that liverwort plastid genes have the potential to evolve faster than their nuclear counterparts, unlike in any other major land plant lineages where the mutation rate of nuclear genes overwhelm those of their plastid and mitochondrial counterparts.