The emerging roles of dual-specificity phosphatases and their specific characteristics in human cancer.

Reversible phosphorylation of proteins, controlled by kinases and phosphatases, is involved in various cellular processes. Dual-specificity phosphatases (DUSPs) can dephosphorylate phosphorylated serine, threonine and tyrosine residues. This family consists of 61 members, 44 of which have been identified in human, and these 44 members are classified into six subgroups, the phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) protein phosphatases (PTENs), mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatases (MKPs), atypical DUSPs, cell division cycle 14 (CDC14) phosphatases (CDC14s), slingshot protein phosphatases (SSHs), and phosphatases of the regenerating liver (PRLs). Growing evidence has revealed dysregulation of DUSPs as one of the common phenomenons and highlighted their key roles in human cancers. Furthermore, their differential expression may be a potential biomarker for tumor prognosis. Despite this, there are still many unstudied members of DUSPs need to further explore their precise roles and mechanism in cancers. Most importantly, the systematic review is very limited on the functional/mechanistic characteristics and clinical application of DUSPs at present. In this review, the structures, functions and underlying mechanisms of DUSPs are systematically reviewed, and the molecular and functional characteristics of DUSPs in different tumor types according to the current researches are summarized. In addition, the potential roles of the unstudied members and the possible different mechanisms of DUSPs in cancer are discussed and classified based on homology alignment and structural domain analyses. Moreover, the specific characteristics of their expression and prognosis are further determined in more than 30 types of human cancers by using the online databases. Finally, their potential application in precise diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of different types of cancers, and the main possible problems for the clinical application at present are prospected.