The importance of small natural features in forests-How the overgrowth of forest gaps affects indigenous flower supply and flower-visiting insects and seed sets of six species.

The abandonment of historical land-use forms within forests, such as grazing or coppicing, and atmospheric nitrogen deposition, has led to an increasing overgrowth of forest gaps and canopy closure in forest ecosystems of Central Europe. From 1945 to 2015, 81% of the forest gaps greater than 150 m within the study area transitioned into a closed forest.This study investigated how the overgrowth process affects flower supply, flower visitors, and reproduction of species. Six native species with different light requirements were used as phytometers.The forest gaps in the studied area are a feature of the historical European cultural landscape. We compared large gaps caused by human activities, small gaps caused by habitat conditions, and closed forests. In eight blocked replicates, each with the three habitat categories, we recorded the flower cover and number of indigenous flowering species in the immediate surroundings, and, of six species, flower visitors and seed production.Forest gaps and their size positively affected the number of flowering plant species in the surrounding area, the number of all flower visitor groups, and the number of seeds produced by all six species. Flower cover in the surrounding area was higher in large gaps, but there was no difference between small gaps and closed forests. Among flower visitors, small bees varied the most between the three habitat categories, and flies varied the least. The effect on the number of seeds produced was particularly strong for three light-demanding species.The overgrowth of forest gaps negatively affected flower supply, flower-visiting insects, and seed sets of six species. Forest gaps should be managed to maintain the reproduction of open forest plants and their pollinators.