Group Composition and Social Structure of Red-Shanked Doucs (Pygathrix nemaeus) at Son Tra Nature Reserve, Vietnam.

Multilevel societies, consisting of multiple one-male multi-female units, are relatively rare among primates, but are more widespread in the odd-nosed colobines than other taxa. Multilevel societies are found particularly in snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus)and have been debated in studies of proboscis monkeys (Proboscis). While it has been suggested that douc langurs (Pygathrix) may also form multilevel societies, the limited data available make the details of their social organization unclear. We aimed to establish a more comprehensive picture of the social organization of red-shanked doucs (Pygathrix nemaeus) and to address the question of whether this species forms multilevel societies, specifically collections of multiple distinct one-male units hereafter termed "bands." We collected 259 h of behavioral data at Son Tra Nature Reserve in Vietnam from February 2010 to May 2011. The mean band size was approximately 18 individuals. Bands were comprised of approximately 2.7 units, and each unit contained approximately 6.5 individuals. Units had an average sex ratio of 1.0:1.6. We observed fission and fusion behaviors which were not correlated with phenological or weather measures. Activity budget data showed that fission and fusion behaviors between units were positively correlated with activity. Both vocalizations and vigilance increased when units engaged in fission. Based on this evidence, P. nemaeus at Son Tra Nature Reserve appear to engage in daily fission-fusion activity which does not vary between seasons. Additionally, our data suggest that these primates may form multilevel societies made up of distinct units. However, future data including proximity pattern analyses are necessary for confirmation.