Microplastics and nanoplastics: Recent literature studies and patents on their removal from aqueous environment.

The presence of microplastics (MP) and nanoplastics (NP) in the environment poses significant hazards towards microorganisms, humans, animals and plants. This paper is focused on recent literature studies and patents discussing the removal process of these plastic pollutants. Microplastics and nanoplastics can be quantified by counting, weighing, absorbance and turbidity and can be further analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and Raman tweezers. Mitigation methods reported are categorized depending on the removal characteristics: (i) Filtration and separation method: Filtration and separation, electrospun nanofiber membrane, constructed wetlands; (ii) Capture and surface attachment method: coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation (CFS), electrocoagulation, adsorption, magnetization, micromachines, superhydrophobic materials and microorganism aggregation; and (iii) Degradation method: photocatalytic degradation, microorganism degradation and thermal degradation; where removal efficiency between 58 and 100% were reported. As these methods are significantly distinctive, the parameters which affect the MP/NP removal performance e.g., pH, type of plastics, presence of interfering chemicals or ions, surface charges etc. are also discussed. 42 granted international patents related to microplastics and nanoplastics removal are also reviewed where the majority of these patents are focused on separation or filtration devices. These devices are efficient for microplastics up to 20 μm but may be ineffective for nanoplastics or fibrous plastics. Several patents were found to focus on methods similar to literature studies e.g., magnetization, CFS, biofilm and microorganism aggregation; with the addition of another method: thermal degradation.