Revisiting the acoustics of speaker gender perception: A gender expansive perspective.

Examinations of speaker gender perception have primarily focused on the roles of fundamental frequency (f) and formant frequencies from structured speech tasks using cisgender speakers. Yet, there is evidence to suggest that f and formants do not fully account for listeners' perceptual judgements of gender, particularly from connected speech. This study investigated the perceptual importance of f, formant frequencies, articulation, and intonation in listeners' judgements of gender identity and masculinity/femininity from spontaneous speech from cisgender male and female speakers as well as transfeminine and transmasculine speakers. Stimuli were spontaneous speech samples from 12 speakers who are cisgender (6 female and 6 male) and 12 speakers who are transgender (6 transfeminine and 6 transmasculine). Listeners performed a two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) gender identification task and masculinity/femininity rating task in two experiments that manipulated which acoustic cues were available. Experiment 1 confirmed that f and formant frequency manipulations were insufficient to alter listener judgements across all speakers. Experiment 2 demonstrated that articulatory cues had greater weighting than intonation cues on the listeners' judgements when the f and formant frequencies were in a gender ambiguous range. These findings counter the assumptions that f and formant manipulations are sufficient to effectively alter perceived speaker gender.