Examining the Impact of Galectin-9 on Latent HIV Transcription.

The β-galactoside-binding protein Galectin-9 (Gal-9) functions as a double-edged sword during HIV infection. On the one hand, Gal-9 can reactivate HIV latently infected cells, the main barrier to achieving HIV eradication, making them visible to immune clearance. On the other hand, Gal-9 induces latent HIV transcription by activating T cell Receptor (TCR) signaling pathways. These signaling pathways induce undesirable pro-inflammatory responses. While these unwanted responses can be mitigated by rapamycin without impacting Gal-9-mediated latent HIV reactivation, this effect raises the concern that Gal-9 may play a role in the chronic immune activation/inflammation that persists in people living with HIV despite antiretroviral therapy. Together, these data highlight the need to understand the positive and negative impacts of galectin interactions on immunological functions during HIV infection. In this chapter, we describe methods that can be used to investigate the effects of galectins, in particular Gal-9, on latent HIV transcription in vitro and ex vivo.