A comparative history of psychosurgery.

The term "psychosurgery" reflecting neurosurgical treatment of mental disorders, was coined by a Portuguese neurologist Egas Moniz (1874-1955), who, in 1935, suggested a procedure named prefrontal leucotomy (or lobotomy) aimed to divide white matter tracts connecting prefrontal cortex and thalamus. Starting from 1936, this technique and its subsequent modification (transorbital lobotomy) was zealously promoted by a neurologist Walter Freeman (1895-1972) and a neurosurgeon James Watts (1904-1994) at George Washington University, who in 1942 summarized their experience in a monograph, which publication resulted in a tremendous worldwide interest in psychosurgical interventions. The present review describes comparative development of prefrontal leucotomy followed by stereotactic ablation and neurostimulation in three different geographical regions: USA, USSR/Russia, and Far East (China and Japan), where psychosurgery followed nearly similar courses, progressing from the initial enthusiasm and high clinical caseloads to nearly complete disregard. The opposition to neurosurgical interventions for mental disorders around the world was led by different groups and for varying reasons, but, unfortunately, always with political considerations mixed in. Today, with vast advancements in neuroimaging, stereotactic neurosurgical techniques, and physiological knowledge, psychiatric neurosurgery can be performed with much greater precision and safety.