Gut Microbiota Ecosystem Governance of Host Inflammation, Mitochondrial Respiration and Skeletal Homeostasis.

Osteoporosis and osteoarthritis account for the leading causes of musculoskeletal dysfunction in older adults. Senescent chondrocyte overburden, inflammation, oxidative stress, subcellular organelle dysfunction, and genomic instability are prominent features of these age-mediated skeletal diseases. Age-related intestinal disorders and gut dysbiosis contribute to host tissue inflammation and oxidative stress by affecting host immune responses and cell metabolism. Dysregulation of gut microflora correlates with development of osteoarthritis and osteoporosis in humans and rodents. Intestinal microorganisms produce metabolites, including short-chain fatty acids, bile acids, trimethylamine N-oxide, and liposaccharides, affecting mitochondrial function, metabolism, biogenesis, autophagy, and redox reactions in chondrocytes and bone cells to regulate joint and bone tissue homeostasis. Modulating the abundance of and , or the ratio of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes, in the gut microenvironment by probiotics or fecal microbiota transplantation is advantageous to suppress age-induced chronic inflammation and oxidative damage in musculoskeletal tissue. Supplementation with gut microbiota-derived metabolites potentially slows down development of osteoarthritis and osteoporosis. This review provides latest molecular and cellular insights into the biological significance of gut microorganisms and primary and secondary metabolites important to cartilage and bone integrity. It further highlights treatment options with probiotics or metabolites for modulating the progression of these two common skeletal disorders.