GIS-based evaluation of groundwater geochemistry and statistical determination of the fate of contaminants in shallow aquifers from different functional areas of Agra city, India: levels and spatial distributions.

The quality of groundwater is very important in Agra because groundwater is the main source of water for drinking, domestic, agricultural and industrial uses. A groundwater geochemistry study was conducted in Agra where 28 samples were collected from shallow aquifers in May 2016 from different sites. The aim of this research was to assess the quality of groundwater for drinking purposes in the study area. Arc-GIS has been used to prepare geographic information system-based spatial distribution maps of different major elements. The groundwater quality was analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters, major cations and anions and some trace metals. The observed values were compared with BIS and WHO standards. Statistical parameters such as the mean, median, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis were used to analyze the hydrogeochemical characteristics of the groundwater. Correlation coefficient analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) were performed to identify the sources of the water constituents. Our results showed that most of the samples exceeded the acceptable limit for drinking water standards. The sequence of abundance of the main cations was generally Na > Ca > Mg > K, while the anions in order of abundance were HCO > Cl > SO and NO > F. All of the trace metals were within the permissible limit except for iron and manganese. The hazard index value of 5.7 × 10 indicated that there was no potential health risk in the study area. Ca, Mg, Cl and SO were the dominant hydrogeochemical facies in the majority of the groundwater samples. Most of the parameters such as TDS, Cl, HCO , SO , NO , Ca, Mg, Na, K and TH showed strong correlations with each other, which were due to natural processes such as weathering, exchangeable ions and reduction/oxidation, as well as anthropogenic activity around the study area. The water quality index indicated that the water quality was poor at 46.43% of the sampling sites, very poor at 28.57% of the sites and unsuitable for drinking purposes at 25% of the sampling sites. Gibbs diagrams suggested rock weathering as a major driving force for controlling the groundwater chemistry in the study area, along with evaporation as a minor influence.