Small extracellular vesicle PD-L1 in cancer: the knowns and unknowns.

According to the conventional wisdom, programmed death protein 1 ligand (PD-L1)-mediated immunosuppression was based on the physical contact between tumor cells and T cells in the tumor microenvironment. Recent studies demonstrated that PD-L1 was also highly expressed on the surface of tumor cell-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs). PD-L1 on sEVs, which could also directly bind to PD-1 on T cells, has a vital function in immunosuppression and immunotherapy resistance. Due to the heterogeneity and dynamic changes of PD-L1 expression on tumor cells, developing sEV PD-L1 as a predictive biomarker for the clinical responses to immunotherapy could be an attractive option. In this review, we summarized and discussed the latest researches and advancements on sEV PD-L1, including the biogenesis and secretion mechanisms, isolation and detection strategies, as well as the biological functions of sEV PD-L1. In the meantime, we highlighted the application potential of sEV PD-L1 as diagnostic and prognostic markers in tumor, especially for predicting the clinical responses to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapies. In particular, with the gradual deepening of the studies, challenges and problems regarding the further understanding and application of sEV PD-L1 have begun to emerge. Based on the current research status, we summarized the potential challenges and possible solutions, and prospected several key directions for future studies of sEV PD-L1. Collectively, by highlighting the important knowns and unknowns of sEV PD-L1, our present review would help to light the way forward for the field of sEV PD-L1 and to avoid unnecessary blindness and detours.