Formants are easy to measure; resonances, not so much: Lessons from Klatt (1986).

Formants in speech signals are easily identified, largely because formants are defined to be local maxima in the wideband sound spectrum. Sadly, this is not what is of most interest in analyzing speech; instead, resonances of the vocal tract are of interest, and they are much harder to measure. Klatt [(1986). in Proceedings of the Montreal Satellite Symposium on Speech Recognition, 12th International Congress on Acoustics, edited by P. Mermelstein (Canadian Acoustical Society, Montreal), pp. 5-7] showed that estimates of resonances are biased by harmonics while the human ear is not. Several analysis techniques placed the formant closer to a strong harmonic than to the center of the resonance. This "harmonic attraction" can persist with newer algorithms and in hand measurements, and systematic errors can persist even in large corpora. Research has shown that the reassigned spectrogram is less subject to these errors than linear predictive coding and similar measures, but it has not been satisfactorily automated, making its wider use unrealistic. Pending better techniques, the recommendations are (1) acknowledge limitations of current analyses regarding influence of F0 and limits on granularity, (2) report settings more fully, (3) justify settings chosen, and (4) examine the pattern of F0 vs F1 for possible harmonic bias.