Lead exposure in childhood and historical land use: a geostatistical analysis of soil lead concentrations in South Philadelphia parks.

Elevated soil lead (Pb) concentrations in public parks and outdoor spaces continue to have a significant impact on the public health of urban communities. This study evaluated the geospatial and statistical relationships between soil Pb concentrations, the urban environment, and child blood lead levels (BLLs) in the neighborhood of South Philadelphia, PA. Soil samples (n = 240) were collected from forty (40) public parks and analyzed for Pb using a field portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyzer. Geospatial mapping was used to investigate historical land use of each park, vehicular traffic on adjacent roadways, and density of residential/commercial development. Predicted child BLLs and BLL "high-risk areas" were identified using interpolation and biokinetic modeling. Childhood BLL data for South Philadelphia (n = 10,379) was provided by the Philadelphia Department of Public Health (2013-2015). Of the two hundred forty (240) soil samples collected, Pb levels for 10.8% of samples were ≥ 400 ppm. Two hundred sixty-nine of 10,379 children screened were identified with BLLs ≥ 5 µg/dL. Historical land use of each park was shown to be significantly correlated (p = 0.01) with soil Pb concentrations and child BLLs ≥ 5 µg/dL. Approximately 13.3% of the variance in child BLLs ≥ 5 µg/dL was attributed to historical site land use. Overall, undeveloped/greenspace historical land use exhibited the highest soil Pb concentrations in the study. Geospatial relationships were identified between census tracts with higher percentages of children with BLLs ≥ 5 µg/dL and interpolated BLL "high-risk" areas (≥ 3.5 µg/dL). The results of this study suggest soil accumulation time and historical land use may influence soil Pb concentrations and child BLLs in urban communities. Measured soil Pb concentrations were determined to effectively model community-wide contamination and childhood Pb exposure.