Liquid-Droplet-Mediated ATP-Triggered Amyloidogenic Pathway of Insulin-Derived Chimeric Peptides: Unraveling the Microscopic and Molecular Processes.

Disease-associated progression of protein dysfunction is typically determined by an interplay of transition pathways leading to liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) and amyloid fibrils. As LLPS introduces another layer of complexity into fibrillization of metastable proteins, a need for tunable model systems to study these intertwined processes has emerged. Here, we demonstrate the LLPS/fibrillization properties of a family of chimeric peptides, ACCK, in which the highly amyloidogenic fragment of insulin (ACC) is merged with oligolysine segments of various lengths (K, = 8, 16, 24, 32, 40). LLPS and fibrillization of ACCK are triggered by ATP through Coulombic interactions with K fragments. ACCK and ACCK form fibrils after a short lag phase without any evidence of LLPS. However, in the case of the three longest peptides, ATP triggers instantaneous LLPS followed by the disappearance of droplets occurring with the formation of amyloid fibrils. The kinetics of the phase transition and the stability of mature co-aggregates are highly sensitive to ionic strength, indicating that electrostatic interactions play a pivotal role in selecting the LLPS-fibrillization transition pathway. Densely packed ionic interactions that characterize ACCK-ATP fibrils render them highly sensitive to hydrostatic pressure due to solvent electrostriction, as demonstrated by infrared spectroscopy. Using atomic force microscopy imaging of rapidly frozen samples, we demonstrate that early fibrils form within single liquid droplets, starting at the droplet/bulk interface through the formation of single bent fibers. A hypothetical molecular scenario underlying the emergence of the LLPS-to-fibrils pathway in the ACCK-ATP system has been put forward.