Functional metagenomic libraries generated from anthropogenically impacted environments reveal importance of metabolic genes in biocide and antibiotic resistance.

Anthropogenic activities result in the release of antimicrobial resistant bacteria and a cocktail of antimicrobial compounds into the environment that may directly select or indirectly co-select for antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Many studies use metagenome sequencing or qPCR-based approaches to study the environmental resistome but these methods are limited by knowledge. In this study, a functional metagenomic approach was used to explore biocide resistance mechanisms in two contaminated environments and a pristine site, and to identify whether potentially novel genes conferring biocide resistance also conferred resistance or reduced susceptibility to antibiotics. Resistance was predominately mediated through novel mechanisms exclusive of the well-known efflux genes. UDP-galactose 4-epimerase () -like genes were identified in both contaminated environments and were shown to confer cross-resistance to biocides and clinically important antibiotics for the first time (to our knowledge), compared to knockout mutants. -like genes were also co-located with transposons, suggesting mobilisation potential. These results show that housekeeping genes may play a significant yet underappreciated role in AMR in environmental microbiomes.