The genetic basis of adaptation to copper pollution in .

Heavy metal pollutants can have long lasting negative impacts on ecosystem health and can shape the evolution of species. The persistent and ubiquitous nature of heavy metal pollution provides an opportunity to characterize the genetic mechanisms that contribute to metal resistance in natural populations. We examined variation in resistance to copper, a common heavy metal contaminant, using wild collections of the model organism . Flies were collected from multiple sites that varied in copper contamination risk. We characterized phenotypic variation in copper resistance within and among populations using bulked segregant analysis to identify regions of the genome that contribute to copper resistance. Copper resistance varied among wild populations with a clear correspondence between resistance level and historical exposure to copper. We identified 288 SNPs distributed across the genome associated with copper resistance. Many SNPs had population-specific effects, but some had consistent effects on copper resistance in all populations. Significant SNPs map to several novel candidate genes involved in refolding disrupted proteins, energy production, and mitochondrial function. We also identified one SNP with consistent effects on copper resistance in all populations near , a gene involved in copper homeostasis and copper resistance. We compared the genetic signatures of copper resistance in the wild-derived populations to genetic control of copper resistance in the Synthetic Population Resource (DSPR) and the Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP), two copper-naïve laboratory populations. In addition to , which was identified as a candidate gene in the wild-derived populations and previously in the DSPR, there was modest overlap of copper-associated SNPs between the wild-derived populations and laboratory populations. Thirty-one SNPs associated with copper resistance in wild-derived populations fell within regions of the genome that were associated with copper resistance in the DSPR in a prior study. Collectively, our results demonstrate that the genetic control of copper resistance is highly polygenic, and that several loci can be clearly linked to genes involved in heavy metal toxicity response. The mixture of parallel and population-specific SNPs points to a complex interplay between genetic background and the selection regime that modifies the effects of genetic variation on copper resistance.