School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, 301 Wire Road, Kinesiology Building, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA.
Department of Kinesiology, Coastal Carolina University, Williams-Brice 111, P.O. Box 261954, Conway, SC, 29528, USA.
Psychol Sport Exerc. 2023 May;66:102323. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102323. Epub 2023 Feb 18.
Having learners practice a motor skill with the expectation of teaching it (versus an expectation of being tested on it) has been revealed to enhance skill learning. However, this improvement in skill performance is lost when the skill must be performed under psychological pressure due to 'choking under pressure.' The present study investigated whether this choking effect is caused by an accrual of declarative knowledge during skill practice and could be prevented if a technique (analogy instructions) to minimize the accrual of declarative knowledge during practice is employed.
We used a 2 (Expectation: teach/test) x 2 (Instructions: analogy/explicit) x 2 (Posttest: low-pressure/high-pressure) mixed-factor design, with repeated measures on the last factor.
One-hundred fifty-six participants were quasi-randomly assigned (based on sex) to one of four groups. Participants in the teach/analogy and teach/explicit groups practiced golf putting with the expectation of teaching putting to another participant, and analogy instructions or explicit instructions, respectively. Participants in the test/analogy and test/explicit groups practiced golf putting with the expectation of being tested on their putting, and analogy instructions or explicit instructions, respectively. The next day all participants completed low- and high-pressure putting posttests, with their putting accuracy serving as the dependent variable.
We observed an Expectation x Instructions × Posttest interaction, such that a main effect of expectation was found in the low-pressure posttest, with the teach group exhibiting superior accuracy, and an Expectation × Instructions interaction was revealed for the high-pressure posttest. This interaction resulted from the teach group showing greater accuracy than the test group exclusively when receiving analogy instructions.
Results show that participants who practiced with the expectation of teaching exhibited superior learning and indicate that they choked under pressure likely due to their accrual of declarative knowledge during practice, since the choking effect was prevented by having them practice with analogy instructions. Accordingly, having learners practice with the expectation of teaching and techniques that minimize the accrual of declarative knowledge is recommended.
让学习者在练习一项运动技能时,预期教授该技能(而不是预期接受测试),已被证明可以提高技能学习。然而,当由于“压力下的窒息”而必须在心理压力下进行技能表现时,这种技能表现的提高就会消失。本研究调查了这种窒息效应是否是由于在练习过程中积累了陈述性知识引起的,如果在练习过程中采用一种可以最大限度减少陈述性知识积累的技术(类比指导),是否可以预防这种窒息效应。
我们使用了 2(期望:教授/测试)x2(指导:类比/明确)x2(后测:低压力/高压力)混合因素设计,最后一个因素重复测量。
156 名参与者根据性别被准随机分配到四个组中的一个。教授/类比和教授/明确组的参与者练习高尔夫推杆,期望将推杆技术教授给另一名参与者,并分别接受类比指导或明确指导。测试/类比和测试/明确组的参与者练习高尔夫推杆,期望接受推杆测试,并分别接受类比指导或明确指导。第二天,所有参与者都完成了低压力和高压力推杆后测,推杆的准确性作为因变量。
我们观察到了一个期望 x 指导 x 后测的交互作用,即在低压力后测中发现了一个期望的主效应,教授组表现出更高的准确性,而在高压力后测中则出现了期望 x 指导的交互作用。这种交互作用是由于教授组在接受类比指导时表现出比测试组更高的准确性。
结果表明,那些在教授预期下练习的参与者表现出了更好的学习效果,并表明他们在压力下可能会窒息,这可能是由于他们在练习过程中积累了陈述性知识,因为通过让他们使用类比指导来练习,这种窒息效应得到了预防。因此,建议让学习者在教授预期下练习,并采用可以最大限度减少陈述性知识积累的技术。