Genetics and Pathogenesis of Dystonia.

Dystonia is a clinically and genetically highly heterogeneous neurological disorder characterized by abnormal movements and postures caused by involuntary sustained or intermittent muscle contractions. A number of groundbreaking genetic and molecular insights have recently been gained. While they enable genetic testing and counseling, their translation into new therapies is still limited. However, we are beginning to understand shared pathophysiological pathways and molecular mechanisms. It has become clear that dystonia results from a dysfunctional network involving the basal ganglia, cerebellum, thalamus, and cortex. On the molecular level, more than a handful of, often intertwined, pathways have been linked to pathogenic variants in dystonia genes, including gene transcription during neurodevelopment (e.g., , ), calcium homeostasis (e.g., , ), striatal dopamine signaling (e.g., ), endoplasmic reticulum stress response (e.g., , , ), autophagy (e.g., ), and others. Thus, different forms of dystonia can be molecularly grouped, which may facilitate treatment development in the future.