Development and optimization of a systematic approach to identifying lead service lines: One community's success.

Lead service lines (LSLs), when present, are the largest source of lead in drinking water, and their removal is necessary to reduce public exposure to lead from drinking water. Unfortunately, the composition of many service lines (SLs) is uncertain. The town of Bennington, Vermont, for example, has unreliable SL records, making it challenging to build an inventory and conduct an LSL replacement program. In 2017, Bennington commenced a project to identify SL materials and replace all LSLs. 159 control homes, consisting of 99 LSL and 60 non-LSL sites, were chosen for record reviews, visual SL observations, fully flushed (FF) and sequential profile water sampling, and test excavations to evaluate method accuracies. Of the 159 control homes, records for 90 % of the 99 known LSL homes were accurate. Whereas 3 % of the 60 non-lead SL homes' records accurately identified SL material. Fully flushed and sequential profile samples (SPSs) were 73 % and 95 % accurate for identifying LSLs and 95 % and 83 % accurate for identifying non-LSLs, respectively. Results were 100 % accurate when visual observations, FF samples, and test excavation were used in a stepwise approach. A stepwise approach consisting of visual SL observations, FF samples, and SPSs achieved a 98 % accuracy at identifying LSLs and a 67 % cost reduction compared to performing test excavations at each home. Findings from this control group study are critical for state, tribal, and local officials to inform their decisions about the selected approach to identify unknown SLs.