Oxidation of p-toluenesulfonic acid fractionated hybrid Pennisetum by different methods for carboxylated nanocellulose preparation: The evaluation of efficiency and sustainability.

An innovative two-step process with p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TsOH) and oxidation treatment was proposed for the efficient preparation of carboxylated nanocellulose from hybrid Pennisetum. Approximately 90 % of lignin was dissolved by p-TsOH acid under the optimal condition (80 °C, 20 min). Near-complete delignification (down to 0.5 %) and introduction of carboxylate groups (up to 1.48 mmol/g) could be achieved simultaneously during cellulose oxidation treatments without the requirement for bleaching. However, different oxidation methods expressed different efficiency and sustainability. 2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) oxidation has higher selectivity for the carboxylation reaction but with detriment to the aquatic environment. Fenton oxidation is more energy-consuming due to the lower carboxylate contents of products (maximum 188 μmol/g), with the carboxylic groups present as carboxylic acids, but competitive in terms of environmental sustainability, especially when renewable energy sources are available. The nanocelluloses obtained by the two oxidation methods differ in morphology and have different application prospects.