Emergency medical services (EMS) infrastructure development and operations in low- and middle-income countries: Formal, professional-driven (Tier-2) systems.

The World Health Organization recognized timely healthcare as a human right and called for the expansion of two-tiered prehospital and out-of-hospital emergency care systems in low- and middle-income countries. Tier-1 systems involve community-based first responder care, and Tier-2 systems involve more formalized emergency medical services designed as a sustainable system of services, including dedicated ambulances, personnel, and equipment. Tier-2 systems can play a crucial role in reducing mortality and disability due to emergency medical and surgical conditions worldwide. However, the implementation and operation of robust Tier-2 systems in low- and middle-income countries face significant challenges. This article examines the current state, challenges, and opportunities of Tier-2 system development and operations in low- and middle-income countries, highlighting the limited coverage and resourcing of existing systems. The challenges faced in developing Tier-2 systems in low- and middle-income countries include a lack of global awareness, financial constraints, regulatory and planning issues, cultural appropriateness, and workforce shortages. Additionally, the availability and maintenance of equipment, technology, transportation, facilities, and interfacility transfers pose significant hurdles. Localized adaptation of emergency medical services models to suit the diverse contexts of different low- and middle-income countries is critical, as are community partnerships in navigating the complexities of specific communities. Furthermore, Tier-2 systems in low- and middle-income countries should prioritize alignment with national policies and integration into their broader healthcare systems. There is also a need for innovative financial sustainability approaches, such as private-public partnerships and cost-sharing schemes, to overcome the upfront costs of establishing Tier-2 system infrastructure. Additionally, strategies for strengthening the emergency medical services workforce, including targeted recruitment and training, are explored. By addressing these challenges and opportunities, Tier-2 systems in low- and middle-income countries can better operate within their available resources and potentially contribute to improved healthcare outcomes. The sharing of best practices and collaborative networks between systems in low- and middle-income countries will also be critical for the development of Tier-2 system infrastructure in these areas.