What are the drivers of female success in food-deceptive orchids?

A large suite of floral signals, and environmental and biotic characteristics influence the behavior of pollinators, affecting the female success of food-deceptive orchids. In this study, we examined the many factors shaping the reproductive output of three orchid taxa: , var. , and . We applied a statistical model to correlate female success (number of fruit sets) with individual characteristics (plant and inflorescence height, number of flowers, and spur length), number of pollinaria removed, flowering time, and density of floral units of co-flowering rewarding plants. Our findings suggested that the broad spectrum of variations in morphological traits, floral display, and flowering phenology within different environmental contexts has a significant impact on their reproductive success. The number of fruits increased with an increase in the number of pollinaria removed in the studied taxa. In contrast, a higher number of flowers per inflorescence and higher inflorescences in relation to individual height always decreased fruit set. We observed that low number of co-flowering rewarding plants in populations could affect the reproductive output as magnets and competitor plants. The synchronization of flowering, or lack thereof, between and rewarding plants can limit reproductive success. This demonstrates that the food deception strategy is multidirectional, and reproductive output can vary considerably both spatially and temporally within the context of this strategy.