The unseen invaders: Tracking phylogeographic dynamics and genetic diversity of cryptic and (Golden apple snails) across Taiwan.

The cryptic invasion of golden apple snails (. ) in Taiwan has caused significant ecological and economical damage over the last few decades, however, their management remains difficult due to inadequate taxonomic identification, complex phylogeny, and limited population genetic information. We aim to understand the current distribution, putative population of origin, genetic diversity, and potential path of cryptic invasion of .  across Taiwan to aid in improved mitigation approaches. The present investigation conducted a nationwide survey with 254 samples collected from 41 locations in 14 counties or cities across Taiwan. We identified .  and .  based on mitochondrial COI and compared their genetic diversity across Taiwan, as well as other introduced and native countries (based on publicly available COI data) to understand the possible paths of invasion to Taiwan. Based on mitochondrial COI barcoding, sympatric and heterogeneous distributions of invasive .  and .  were noted. Our haplotype analysis and mismatch distribution results suggested multiple introductions of .  in Taiwan was likely originated directly from Argentina, whereas .  was probably introduced from a single, or a few, introduction event(s) from Argentina and Brazil. Our population genetic data further demonstrated a higher haplotype and genetic diversity for .  and .  in Taiwan compared to other introduced regions. Based on our current understanding, the establishment of .  and .  is alarming and widespread beyond geopolitical borders, requiring a concerted and expedited national and international invasive species mitigation program.