Exploring the NRF2/HO-1 and NF-κB Pathways: Spirulina Nanoparticles as a Novel Approach to Combat Diabetic Nephropathy.

has been the subject of plentiful studies due to its purported health advantages; nevertheless, additional investigation is required to determine whether several chronic diseases may be treated or avoided with its nanoform. Therefore, we set out to examine nanoparticles (SNPs) to protect against kidney impairment caused by Streptozotocin (STZ) in diabetic rats, precisely focusing on its effect and the cellular intracellular pathways involved. Male Wistar rats were assigned into four groups: Group 1 was set as control, comprising the normal rats; group 2 was administered SNPs (0.5 mg/kg BW, once/day) orally for 84 consecutive days; group 3, STZ-diabetic rats were injected with STZ (65 mg/kg BW); and group 4, in which the diabetic rats were treated with SNPs. After inducing diabetes in rats for 84 days, the animals were euthanized. The results disclosed that SNP treatment substantially ( < 0.05) improved the glucose and glycated hemoglobin levels (HbA1c %), insulin, C-peptide, and cystatin C deterioration in diabetic rats. Furthermore, SNP administration significantly lowered ( < 0.05) nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in renal tissue and enhanced kidney function metrics, as well as improved the antioxidant capacity of the renal tissue. In addition, oral SNPs overcame the diabetic complications concerning diabetic nephropathy, indicated by downregulation and upregulation of apoptotic and antiapoptotic genes, respectively, along with prominent modulation of the antiangiogenic marker countenance level, improving kidney function. SNP modulated the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 and heme oxygenase-1 (NRF2/HO-1) pathways and inhibited the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) expression, strengthening the SNP pathways in alleviating diabetic nephropathy. The histopathology results corroborated the obtained biochemical and molecular observations, suggesting the therapeutic potential of SNPs in diabetic nephropathy via mechanisms other than its significant antioxidant and hypoglycemic effects, including modulation of antiangiogenic and inflammatory mediators and the NRF2/HO-1 pathways.