Recovering predators link aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems: River otters subsidize coyotes with carrion.

Despite global declines in the abundance and distribution of predators, conservation and reintroduction efforts are increasingly leading to predator recoveries. Unexpected species interactions and ecological consequences often arise when these predator recoveries occur. Here, we describe a novel species interaction in which coyotes () kleptoparasitize North American river otters () in a region of river otter recovery along the north-central California coast, USA. We describe eight observations of coyotes scavenging otter-killed waterbird carrion, including one observation in which river otters aggressively defended their prey from a coyote kleptoparasite. These observations highlight the importance of carrion provisioning as an overlooked pathway through which river otters facilitate nutrient subsidies to terrestrial scavengers. This behavior may have ecological implications including effects on the abundance, behavior, and health of scavengers as well as their interspecific interactions. We propose hypotheses and questions regarding these ecological consequences to guide further investigations into the cross-ecosystem impacts of recovering river otter populations.